Les ordres permettent d'effectuer des transactions. Ils permettent aux traders de prendre de nouvelles positions sur le marché ou de stopper des positions qui sont déjà sur le marché.
Ces ordres peuvent donc être associés à des positions ouvertes, mais pas nécessairement.
Les ordres peuvent donc permettre de fixer le bénéfice ou la perte que le trader souhaite associér à ses positions.
Saturday, April 10, 2010
Novice Forex
Le Forex est un marché interbancaire. Il n'a donc pas de place définie comme les bourses (bourse de Paris, de New York.). Le forex est un flux continu d'échanges entre les banques du monde entier. Ces échanges de données permettent de faire fluctuer les devises de tous les pays.
Les brokers sur le Forex reçoivent le flux d'une banque et permettent grâce à leur plateforme de trading aux investisseurs privés d'accéder au marché des changes.
Les market makers reçoivent le flux de plusieurs banques et créent eux-mêmes leur propre flux afin de permettre aux investisseurs de spéculer sur le marché des changes. Ces investisseurs spéculent sur le forex via 2 analyses principales : l'analyse fondamentale et l'analyse graphique.
Les devises fluctuent 24h/24 et 7 jours sur 7 (La plupart des brokers et market makers ne permettent pas de trader le week-end car la volatilité sur le marché des changes est très faible). La variation la plus faible sur une parité est de 1 pip.
On appelle le taux de change le prix d'échange entre 2 monnaies. Pour le taux de change Eur/usd, si le cours est de 1.2850, alors si vous changez 1 euro en dollars, vous aurez en échange 1.2850 dollars.
Les brokers sur le Forex reçoivent le flux d'une banque et permettent grâce à leur plateforme de trading aux investisseurs privés d'accéder au marché des changes.
Les market makers reçoivent le flux de plusieurs banques et créent eux-mêmes leur propre flux afin de permettre aux investisseurs de spéculer sur le marché des changes. Ces investisseurs spéculent sur le forex via 2 analyses principales : l'analyse fondamentale et l'analyse graphique.
Les devises fluctuent 24h/24 et 7 jours sur 7 (La plupart des brokers et market makers ne permettent pas de trader le week-end car la volatilité sur le marché des changes est très faible). La variation la plus faible sur une parité est de 1 pip.
On appelle le taux de change le prix d'échange entre 2 monnaies. Pour le taux de change Eur/usd, si le cours est de 1.2850, alors si vous changez 1 euro en dollars, vous aurez en échange 1.2850 dollars.
Un marché en continu
Le marché des changes est un marché qui fonctionne en continu du dimanche 23h00 au vendredi 22h00. Il est donc possible pour chaque investisseur d'effectuer des transactions 24h/24h, 5 jours sur 7. Ces horaires permettent aux investisseurs privés n'ayant pas forcément le temps de trader pendant la journée de pouvoir profiter d'opportunités en soirée, la nuit ou tôt le matin.
Une information facilement accessible
Les cours de changes sont impactés par plusieurs variables comme les statistiques publiées régulièrement sur les économies (chiffres sur l'emploi, l'immobilier, l'inflation…), les décisions des Etats, des gouverneurs de banques centrales (sur la législation du pays, sur les taux directeurs…)…
Toute cette information est facilement accessible grâce aux brokers, aux médias internet, à la presse écrite…et vous permet d'être informé clairement sur la santé économique et financière des Etats.
Toute cette information est facilement accessible grâce aux brokers, aux médias internet, à la presse écrite…et vous permet d'être informé clairement sur la santé économique et financière des Etats.
Une faible volatilite
Le marché des changes est un marché à faible volatilité, en effet on observe que la variation moyenne quotidienne sur l'eur/usd n'excède généralement pas 1%.
Le Forex est considéré à tort comme un marché volatile, mais il offre en fait une faible volatilité. A tort de nombreux investisseurs se mettent en tête que c'est un marché hautement volatile et dangereux car les gains ou les pertes peuvent être rapidement très importants. Mais l'importance des gains et des pertes est issue de l'importance des effets de levier permis par les brokers forex. L'effet de levier est le seul responsable de cette réputation.
Notons que chaque investisseur choisit la taille de ses positions et maîtrise donc complètement son risque… Le money management est un outil primordial, vital pour investir sur les marchés…
Le Forex est considéré à tort comme un marché volatile, mais il offre en fait une faible volatilité. A tort de nombreux investisseurs se mettent en tête que c'est un marché hautement volatile et dangereux car les gains ou les pertes peuvent être rapidement très importants. Mais l'importance des gains et des pertes est issue de l'importance des effets de levier permis par les brokers forex. L'effet de levier est le seul responsable de cette réputation.
Notons que chaque investisseur choisit la taille de ses positions et maîtrise donc complètement son risque… Le money management est un outil primordial, vital pour investir sur les marchés…
Le plus grand marché financier au monde
Le marché des changes est le plus grand marché financier du monde, le plus liquide au monde… Plus de 3 200 milliards de dollars s'échangent quotidiennement sur le Forex, pour comparaison, seuls 25 milliards de dollars s'échangent quotidiennement sur les marchés actions à travers le monde. De plus, les volumes augmentent d'année en année…
Ce volume énorme permet d'assurer une liquidité constante pour les opérations spot. La grande liquidité du marché permet d'empêcher une éventuelle manipulation des cours. Même les banques centrales ne peuvent influencer véritablement les cours de change.
Ce volume énorme permet d'assurer une liquidité constante pour les opérations spot. La grande liquidité du marché permet d'empêcher une éventuelle manipulation des cours. Même les banques centrales ne peuvent influencer véritablement les cours de change.
De nombreuses facilités
Le Forex permet d'utiliser un effet de levier très simplement, et sans frais contrairement au Service à Règlement Différé (SRD) sur les marchés actions. Le Forex permet aussi de prendre des positions vendeuses appelées « short » sur le Forex, ou vad sur les marchés actions. Cette possibilité de shorter est disponible pour tous les taux de change, à la différences du marché actions où seules certaines actions sont éligibles au SRD. Les positions shorts sur le marché des changes n'entraînent pas de surcoûts supplémentaires contrairement au marché des actions. Sur le Forex, l'investisseur est toujours acheteur et vendeur en même temps. Imaginons une position acheteuse sur l'eur/usd, l'investisseur est donc long euro et short dollar.
Friday, April 2, 2010
Criticism
Adjustable rate mortgages are sometimes sold to consumers who are unlikely to be able to repay the loan should interest rates rise.[7] In the United States, extreme cases are characterized by the Consumer Federation of America as predatory loans. Protections against interest rate rises include (a) a possible initial period with a fixed rate (which gives the borrower a chance to increase his/her annual earnings before payments rise); (b) a maximum (cap) that interest rates can rise in any year (if there is a cap, it must be specified in the loan document); and (c) a maximum (cap) that interest rates can rise over the life of the mortgage (this also must be specified in the loan document).
Prepayment
Adjustable rate mortgages, like other types of mortgage, usually allow the borrower to prepay principal (or capital) early without penalty. Early payments of part of the principal will reduce the total cost of the loan (total interest paid), but will not shorten the amount of time needed to pay off the loan like other loan types. Upon each recasting, the new fully indexed interest rate is applied to the remaining principal to end within the remaining term schedule.
If a mortgage is refinanced, the borrower simultaneously takes out a new mortgage and pays off the old mortgage; the latter counts as a prepayment.
Some ARMs charge prepayment penalties of several thousand dollars if the borrower refinances the loan or pays it off early, especially within the first 3 or 5 years of the loan.[1]
If a mortgage is refinanced, the borrower simultaneously takes out a new mortgage and pays off the old mortgage; the latter counts as a prepayment.
Some ARMs charge prepayment penalties of several thousand dollars if the borrower refinances the loan or pays it off early, especially within the first 3 or 5 years of the loan.[1]
Pricing
Adjustable rate mortgages are typically, but not always, less expensive than fixed-rate mortgages. Due to the inherent interest rate risk, long-term fixed rates will tend to be higher than short-term rates (which are the basis for variable-rate loans and mortgages). The difference in interest rates between short and long-term loans is known as the yield curve, which generally slopes upward (longer terms are more expensive). The opposite circumstance is known as an inverted yield curve and is relatively infrequent.
The fact that an adjustable rate mortgage has a lower starting interest rate does not indicate what the future cost of borrowing will be (when rates change). If rates rise, the cost will be higher; if rates go down, the rate will be lower. In effect, the borrower has agreed to take the interest rate risk. Some studies have shown that on average, the majority of borrowers with adjustable rate mortgages save money in the long term.[6]
The actual pricing and rate analysis of adjustable rate mortgage in the finance industry is done through various computer simulation methodologies like Monte Carlo method or Sobol sequences. In these techniques, by using an assumed probability distribution of future interest rates, numerous (10,000 - 100,000 or even 1,000,000) possible interest rate scenarios are explored, mortgage cash flows calculated under each, and aggregate parameters like fair value and effective interest rate over the life of the mortgage are estimated. Having these at hand, lending analysts determine whether offering a particular mortgage would be profitable, and if it would represent tolerable risk to the bank
The fact that an adjustable rate mortgage has a lower starting interest rate does not indicate what the future cost of borrowing will be (when rates change). If rates rise, the cost will be higher; if rates go down, the rate will be lower. In effect, the borrower has agreed to take the interest rate risk. Some studies have shown that on average, the majority of borrowers with adjustable rate mortgages save money in the long term.[6]
The actual pricing and rate analysis of adjustable rate mortgage in the finance industry is done through various computer simulation methodologies like Monte Carlo method or Sobol sequences. In these techniques, by using an assumed probability distribution of future interest rates, numerous (10,000 - 100,000 or even 1,000,000) possible interest rate scenarios are explored, mortgage cash flows calculated under each, and aggregate parameters like fair value and effective interest rate over the life of the mortgage are estimated. Having these at hand, lending analysts determine whether offering a particular mortgage would be profitable, and if it would represent tolerable risk to the bank
Popularity
Variable rate mortgages are the most common form of loan for house purchase in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Canada but are unpopular in some other countries. Variable rate mortgages are very common in Australia and New Zealand. In some countries, true fixed-rate mortgages are not available except for shorter-term loans; in Canada, the longest term for which a mortgage rate can be fixed is typically no more than ten years, while mortgage maturities are commonly 25 years.
In many countries, it is not feasible for banks to borrow at fixed rates for very long terms; in these cases, the only feasible type of mortgage for banks to offer may be adjustable rate mortgages (barring some form of government intervention).
For those who plan to move within a relatively short period of time (three to seven years), they are attractive because they often include a lower, fixed rate of interest for the first three, five, or seven years of the loan, after which the interest rate fluctuates.
In many countries, it is not feasible for banks to borrow at fixed rates for very long terms; in these cases, the only feasible type of mortgage for banks to offer may be adjustable rate mortgages (barring some form of government intervention).
For those who plan to move within a relatively short period of time (three to seven years), they are attractive because they often include a lower, fixed rate of interest for the first three, five, or seven years of the loan, after which the interest rate fluctuates.
Loan caps
Loan caps provide payment protection against payment shock, and allow a measure of interest rate certainty to those who gamble with initial fixed rates on ARM loans. There are three types of Caps on a typical First Lien Adjustable Rate Mortgage or First Lien Hybrid Adjustable Rate Mortgage.
Initial Adjustment Rate Cap: The majority of loans have a higher cap for initial adjustments that's indexed to the initial fixed period. In other words, the longer the initial fixed term, the more the bank would like to potentially adjust your loan. Typically, this cap is 2-3% above the Start Rate on a loan with an initial fixed rate term of 3 years or lower and 5-6% above the Start Rate on a loan with an initial fixed rate term of 5 years or greater.
Rate Adjustment Cap: This is the maximum amount by which an Adjustable Rate Mortgage may increase on each successive adjustment. Similar to the initial cap, this cap is usually 1% above the Start Rate for loans with an initial fixed term of 3 years or greater and usually 2% above the Start Rate for loans that have an initial fixed term of 5 years or greater
Lifetime Cap: Most First Mortgage loans have a 5% or 6% Life Cap above the Start Rate (this ultimately varies by the lender and credit grade).
Industry Shorthand for ARM Caps
Inside the business caps are expressed most often by simply the 3 numbers involved that signify each cap. For example, a 5/1 Hybrid ARM may have a cap structure of 5/2/5 (5% initial cap, 2% adjustment cap and 5% lifetime cap) and insiders would call this a 5-2-5 cap. Alternately a 1 year arm might have a 1/1/6 cap (1% initial cap, 1% adjustment cap and 6% lifetime cap) known as a 1-1-6, or alternately expressed as a 1/6 cap (leaving out one digit signifies that the initial and adjustment caps are identical).
Negative amortization ARM caps
See the complete article for the type of ARM that Negative amortization loans are by nature. Higher risk products, such as First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans with Negative amortization and Home Equity Lines of Credit aka HELOC have different ways of structuring the Cap than a typical First Lien Mortgage. The typical First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans with Negative amortization loan has a life cap for the underlying rate (aka "Fully Indexed Rate") between 9.95% and 12% (maximum assessed interest rate). Some of these loans can have much higher rate ceilings. The fully indexed rate is always listed on the statement, but borrowers are shielded from the full effect of rate increases by the minimum payment, until the loan is recast, which is when principal and interest payments are due that will fully amortize the loan at the fully indexed rate.
Home Equity Lines of Credit HELOC
Since HELOCs are intended by banks to primarily sit in second lien position, they normally are only capped by the maximum interest rate allowed by law in the state wherein they are issued. For example, Florida currently has an 18% cap on interest rate charges. These loans are risky in the sense that to lenders, they are practically a credit card issued to the borrower, with minimal security in the event of default. They are risky to the borrower in the sense that they are mostly indexed to the Wall Street Journal Prime Rate, which is considered a Spot Index, or a financial indicator that is subject to immediate change (as are the loans based upon the Prime Rate). The risk to borrower being that a financial situation causing the Federal Reserve to raise rates dramatically (see 1980, 2006) would effect an immediate rise in obligation to the borrower, up to the capped rate.
Initial Adjustment Rate Cap: The majority of loans have a higher cap for initial adjustments that's indexed to the initial fixed period. In other words, the longer the initial fixed term, the more the bank would like to potentially adjust your loan. Typically, this cap is 2-3% above the Start Rate on a loan with an initial fixed rate term of 3 years or lower and 5-6% above the Start Rate on a loan with an initial fixed rate term of 5 years or greater.
Rate Adjustment Cap: This is the maximum amount by which an Adjustable Rate Mortgage may increase on each successive adjustment. Similar to the initial cap, this cap is usually 1% above the Start Rate for loans with an initial fixed term of 3 years or greater and usually 2% above the Start Rate for loans that have an initial fixed term of 5 years or greater
Lifetime Cap: Most First Mortgage loans have a 5% or 6% Life Cap above the Start Rate (this ultimately varies by the lender and credit grade).
Industry Shorthand for ARM Caps
Inside the business caps are expressed most often by simply the 3 numbers involved that signify each cap. For example, a 5/1 Hybrid ARM may have a cap structure of 5/2/5 (5% initial cap, 2% adjustment cap and 5% lifetime cap) and insiders would call this a 5-2-5 cap. Alternately a 1 year arm might have a 1/1/6 cap (1% initial cap, 1% adjustment cap and 6% lifetime cap) known as a 1-1-6, or alternately expressed as a 1/6 cap (leaving out one digit signifies that the initial and adjustment caps are identical).
Negative amortization ARM caps
See the complete article for the type of ARM that Negative amortization loans are by nature. Higher risk products, such as First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans with Negative amortization and Home Equity Lines of Credit aka HELOC have different ways of structuring the Cap than a typical First Lien Mortgage. The typical First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans with Negative amortization loan has a life cap for the underlying rate (aka "Fully Indexed Rate") between 9.95% and 12% (maximum assessed interest rate). Some of these loans can have much higher rate ceilings. The fully indexed rate is always listed on the statement, but borrowers are shielded from the full effect of rate increases by the minimum payment, until the loan is recast, which is when principal and interest payments are due that will fully amortize the loan at the fully indexed rate.
Home Equity Lines of Credit HELOC
Since HELOCs are intended by banks to primarily sit in second lien position, they normally are only capped by the maximum interest rate allowed by law in the state wherein they are issued. For example, Florida currently has an 18% cap on interest rate charges. These loans are risky in the sense that to lenders, they are practically a credit card issued to the borrower, with minimal security in the event of default. They are risky to the borrower in the sense that they are mostly indexed to the Wall Street Journal Prime Rate, which is considered a Spot Index, or a financial indicator that is subject to immediate change (as are the loans based upon the Prime Rate). The risk to borrower being that a financial situation causing the Federal Reserve to raise rates dramatically (see 1980, 2006) would effect an immediate rise in obligation to the borrower, up to the capped rate.
Terminology
X/Y - Hybrid ARMs are often referred to in this format, where X is the number of years during which the initial interest rate applies prior to first adjustment (common terms are 3, 5, 7, and 10 years), and Y is the interval between adjustments (common terms are 1 for one year and 6 for six months). As an example, a 5/1 ARM means that the initial interest rate applies for five years (or 60 months, in terms of payments), after which the interest rate is adjusted annually. (Adjustments for escrow accounts, however, do not follow the 5/1 schedule; these are done annually.)
Fully Indexed Rate - The price of the ARM as calculated by adding Index + Margin = Fully Indexed Rate. This is the interest rate your loan would be at without a Start Rate (the introductory special rate for the initial fixed period). This means the loan would be higher if adjusting, typically, 1-3% higher than the fixed rate. Calculating this is important for ARM buyers, since it helps predict the future interest rate of the loan.
Margin - For ARMs where the index is applied to the interest rate of the note on an "index plus margin" basis, the margin is the difference between the note rate and the index on which the note rate is based expressed in percentage terms.[1] This is not to be confused with profit margin. The lower the margin the better the loan is to the borrower as the maximum rate will increase less at each adjustment. Margins will vary between 2%-7%.
Index - A published financial index such as LIBOR used to periodically adjust the interest rate of the ARM.
Start Rate - The introductory rate provided to purchasers of ARM loans for the initial fixed interest period.
Period - The length of time between interest rate adjustments. In times of falling interest rates, a shorter period benefits the borrower. On the other hand, in times of rising interest rates, a shorter period benefits the lender.
Floor - A clause that sets the minimum rate for the interest rate of an ARM loan. Loans may come with a Start Rate = Floor feature, but this is primarily for Non-Conforming (aka Sub-Prime or Program Lending) loan products. This prevents an ARM loan from ever adjusting lower than the Start Rate. An "A Paper" loan typically has either no Floor or 2% below start.
Payment Shock - Industry term to describe the severe (unexpected or planned for by borrower) upward movement of mortgage loan interest rates and its effect on borrowers. This is the major risk of an ARM, as this can lead to severe financial hardship for the borrower.
Cap - Any clause that sets a limitation on the amount or frequency of rate changes.
Fully Indexed Rate - The price of the ARM as calculated by adding Index + Margin = Fully Indexed Rate. This is the interest rate your loan would be at without a Start Rate (the introductory special rate for the initial fixed period). This means the loan would be higher if adjusting, typically, 1-3% higher than the fixed rate. Calculating this is important for ARM buyers, since it helps predict the future interest rate of the loan.
Margin - For ARMs where the index is applied to the interest rate of the note on an "index plus margin" basis, the margin is the difference between the note rate and the index on which the note rate is based expressed in percentage terms.[1] This is not to be confused with profit margin. The lower the margin the better the loan is to the borrower as the maximum rate will increase less at each adjustment. Margins will vary between 2%-7%.
Index - A published financial index such as LIBOR used to periodically adjust the interest rate of the ARM.
Start Rate - The introductory rate provided to purchasers of ARM loans for the initial fixed interest period.
Period - The length of time between interest rate adjustments. In times of falling interest rates, a shorter period benefits the borrower. On the other hand, in times of rising interest rates, a shorter period benefits the lender.
Floor - A clause that sets the minimum rate for the interest rate of an ARM loan. Loans may come with a Start Rate = Floor feature, but this is primarily for Non-Conforming (aka Sub-Prime or Program Lending) loan products. This prevents an ARM loan from ever adjusting lower than the Start Rate. An "A Paper" loan typically has either no Floor or 2% below start.
Payment Shock - Industry term to describe the severe (unexpected or planned for by borrower) upward movement of mortgage loan interest rates and its effect on borrowers. This is the major risk of an ARM, as this can lead to severe financial hardship for the borrower.
Cap - Any clause that sets a limitation on the amount or frequency of rate changes.
Cash flow ARMs
A cash flow ARM is a minimum payment option mortgage loan. This is a fancy term for a loan that allows a borrower to choose their monthly payment from several options. These payment options usually include the option to pay at the 30 year level, 15 year level, interest only level, and a minimum payment level. The minimum payment level is usually lower than the interest only payment. This type of loan can result in negative amortization. The option to make a minimum payment is usually available only for the first several years of the loan.
Cash flow ARM mortgages are synonymous with option ARM or payment option ARM mortgages, however it should be noted that not all loans with cash flow options are adjustable. In fact, fixed rate cash flow option loans retain the same cash flow options as cash flow ARMs and option ARMs, but remain fixed for up to 30 years.[
Cash flow ARM mortgages are synonymous with option ARM or payment option ARM mortgages, however it should be noted that not all loans with cash flow options are adjustable. In fact, fixed rate cash flow option loans retain the same cash flow options as cash flow ARMs and option ARMs, but remain fixed for up to 30 years.[
Option ARMs
An "option ARM" is typically a 30-year ARM that initially offers the borrower four monthly payment options: a specified minimum payment, an interest-only payment, a 15-year fully amortizing payment, and a 30-year fully amortizing payment.[4]
These types of loans are also called "pick-a-payment" or "pay-option" ARMs.
When a borrower makes a Pay-Option ARM payment that is less than the accruing interest, there is "negative amortization", which means that the unpaid portion of the accruing interest is added to the outstanding principal balance. For example, if the borrower makes a minimum payment of $1,000 and the ARM has accrued monthly interest in arrears of $1,500, $500 will be added to the borrower's loan balance. Moreover, the next month's interest-only payment will be calculated using the new, higher principal balance.
Option ARMs are often offered with a very low teaser rate (often as low as 1%) which translates into very low minimum payments for the first year of the ARM. During boom times, lenders often underwrite borrowers based on mortgage payments that are below the fully amortizing payment level. This enables borrowers to qualify for a much larger loan (i.e., take on more debt) than would otherwise be possible. When evaluating an Option ARM, prudent borrowers will not focus on the teaser rate or initial payment level, but will consider the characteristics of the index, the size of the "mortgage margin" that is added to the index value, and the other terms of the ARM. Specifically, they need to consider the possibilities that (1) long-term interest rates go up; (2) their home may not appreciate or may even lose value or even (3) that both risks may materialize.
Option ARMs are best suited to sophisticated borrowers with growing incomes, particularly if their incomes fluctuate seasonally and they need the payment flexibility that such an ARM may provide. Sophisticated borrowers will carefully manage the level of negative amortization that they allow to accrue.
In this way, a borrower can control the main risk of an Option ARM, which is "payment shock", when the negative amortization and other features of this product can trigger substantial payment increases in short periods of time.[5]
The minimum payment on an Option ARM can jump dramatically if its unpaid principal balance hits the maximum limit on negative amortization (typically 110% to 125% of the original loan amount). If that happens, the next minimum monthly payment will be at a level that would fully amortize the ARM over its remaining term. In addition, Option ARMs typically have automatic "recast" dates (often every fifth year) when the payment is adjusted to get the ARM back on pace to amortize the ARM in full over its remaining term.
For example, a $200,000 ARM with a 110% "neg am" cap will typically adjust to a fully amortizing payment, based on the current fully-indexed interest rate and the remaining term of the loan, if negative amortization causes the loan balance to exceed $220,000. For a 125% recast, this will happen if the loan balance reaches $250,000.
Any loan that is allowed to generate negative amortization means that the borrower is reducing his equity in his home, which increases the chance that he won't be able to sell it for enough to repay the loan. Declining property values would exacerbate this risk.
Option ARMs may also be available as "hybrids," with longer fixed-rate periods. These products would not be likely to have low teaser rates. As a result, such ARMs mitigate the possibility of negative amortization, and would likely not appeal to borrowers seeking an "affordability" product.
These types of loans are also called "pick-a-payment" or "pay-option" ARMs.
When a borrower makes a Pay-Option ARM payment that is less than the accruing interest, there is "negative amortization", which means that the unpaid portion of the accruing interest is added to the outstanding principal balance. For example, if the borrower makes a minimum payment of $1,000 and the ARM has accrued monthly interest in arrears of $1,500, $500 will be added to the borrower's loan balance. Moreover, the next month's interest-only payment will be calculated using the new, higher principal balance.
Option ARMs are often offered with a very low teaser rate (often as low as 1%) which translates into very low minimum payments for the first year of the ARM. During boom times, lenders often underwrite borrowers based on mortgage payments that are below the fully amortizing payment level. This enables borrowers to qualify for a much larger loan (i.e., take on more debt) than would otherwise be possible. When evaluating an Option ARM, prudent borrowers will not focus on the teaser rate or initial payment level, but will consider the characteristics of the index, the size of the "mortgage margin" that is added to the index value, and the other terms of the ARM. Specifically, they need to consider the possibilities that (1) long-term interest rates go up; (2) their home may not appreciate or may even lose value or even (3) that both risks may materialize.
Option ARMs are best suited to sophisticated borrowers with growing incomes, particularly if their incomes fluctuate seasonally and they need the payment flexibility that such an ARM may provide. Sophisticated borrowers will carefully manage the level of negative amortization that they allow to accrue.
In this way, a borrower can control the main risk of an Option ARM, which is "payment shock", when the negative amortization and other features of this product can trigger substantial payment increases in short periods of time.[5]
The minimum payment on an Option ARM can jump dramatically if its unpaid principal balance hits the maximum limit on negative amortization (typically 110% to 125% of the original loan amount). If that happens, the next minimum monthly payment will be at a level that would fully amortize the ARM over its remaining term. In addition, Option ARMs typically have automatic "recast" dates (often every fifth year) when the payment is adjusted to get the ARM back on pace to amortize the ARM in full over its remaining term.
For example, a $200,000 ARM with a 110% "neg am" cap will typically adjust to a fully amortizing payment, based on the current fully-indexed interest rate and the remaining term of the loan, if negative amortization causes the loan balance to exceed $220,000. For a 125% recast, this will happen if the loan balance reaches $250,000.
Any loan that is allowed to generate negative amortization means that the borrower is reducing his equity in his home, which increases the chance that he won't be able to sell it for enough to repay the loan. Declining property values would exacerbate this risk.
Option ARMs may also be available as "hybrids," with longer fixed-rate periods. These products would not be likely to have low teaser rates. As a result, such ARMs mitigate the possibility of negative amortization, and would likely not appeal to borrowers seeking an "affordability" product.
Hybrid ARMs
A hybrid ARM features an interest rate that is fixed for an initial period of time, then floats thereafter. The "hybrid" refers to the ARM's blend of fixed-rate and adjustable-rate characteristics. Hybrid ARMs are referred to by their initial fixed-rate and adjustable-rate periods, for example 3/1 for an ARM with a 3-year fixed interest-rate period and subsequent 1-year interest-rate adjustment periods. The date that a hybrid ARM shifts from a fixed-rate payment schedule to an adjusting payment schedule is known as the reset date. After the reset date, a hybrid ARM floats at a margin over a specified index just like any ordinary ARM.[3]
The popularity of hybrid ARMs has significantly increased in recent years. In 1998, the percentage of hybrids relative to 30-year fixed-rate mortgages was less than 2%; within 6 years, this increased to 27.5%.[3]
Like other ARMs, hybrid ARMs transfer some interest-rate risk from the lender to the borrower, thus allowing the lender to offer a lower note rate in many interest-rate environments.
The popularity of hybrid ARMs has significantly increased in recent years. In 1998, the percentage of hybrids relative to 30-year fixed-rate mortgages was less than 2%; within 6 years, this increased to 27.5%.[3]
Like other ARMs, hybrid ARMs transfer some interest-rate risk from the lender to the borrower, thus allowing the lender to offer a lower note rate in many interest-rate environments.
Reasons for ARMs
ARMs generally permit borrowers to lower their initial payments if they are willing to assume the risk of interest rate changes. In many countries, banks or similar financial institutions are the primary originators of mortgages. For banks that are funded from customer deposits, the customer deposits will typically have much shorter terms than residential mortgages. If a bank were to offer large volumes of mortgages at fixed rates but to derive most of its funding from deposits (or other short-term sources of funds), the bank would have an asset-liability mismatch: in this case, it would be running the risk that the interest income from its mortgage portfolio would be less than it needed to pay its depositors. In the United States, some argue that the savings and loan crisis was in part caused by this problem, that the savings and loans companies had short-term deposits and long-term, fixed rate mortgages, and were caught when Paul Volcker raised interest rates in the early 1980s. Therefore, banks and other financial institutions offer adjustable rate mortgages because it reduces risk and matches their sources of funding.
Banking regulators pay close attention to asset-liability mismatches to avoid such problems, and place tight restrictions on the amount of long-term fixed-rate mortgages that banks may hold (in relation to their other assets). To reduce this risk, many mortgage originators will sell many of their mortgages, particularly the mortgages with fixed rates.
For the borrower, adjustable rate mortgages may be less expensive, but at the price of bearing higher risk. Many ARMs have "teaser periods," which are relatively short initial fixed-rate periods (typically one month to one year) when the ARM bears an interest rate that is substantially below the "fully indexed" rate. The teaser period may induce some borrowers to view an ARM as more of a bargain than it really represents. A low teaser rate predisposes an ARM to sustain above-average payment increases.
Banking regulators pay close attention to asset-liability mismatches to avoid such problems, and place tight restrictions on the amount of long-term fixed-rate mortgages that banks may hold (in relation to their other assets). To reduce this risk, many mortgage originators will sell many of their mortgages, particularly the mortgages with fixed rates.
For the borrower, adjustable rate mortgages may be less expensive, but at the price of bearing higher risk. Many ARMs have "teaser periods," which are relatively short initial fixed-rate periods (typically one month to one year) when the ARM bears an interest rate that is substantially below the "fully indexed" rate. The teaser period may induce some borrowers to view an ARM as more of a bargain than it really represents. A low teaser rate predisposes an ARM to sustain above-average payment increases.
Limitations on charges (caps)
Any mortgage where payments made by the borrower may increase over time brings with it the risk of financial hardship to the borrower. To limit this risk, limitations on charges—known as caps in the industry—are a common feature of adjustable rate mortgages.[1] Caps typically apply to three characteristics of the mortgage:
frequency of the interest rate change
periodic change in interest rate
total change in interest rate over the life of the loan, sometimes called life cap
For example, a given ARM might have the following types of caps:
Interest rate adjustment caps:
interest adjustments made every 6 months, typically 1% per adjustment, 2% total per year
interest adjustments made only once a year, typically 2% maximum
interest rate may adjust no more than 1% in a year
Mortgage payment adjustment caps:
maximum mortgage payment adjustments, usually 7.5% annually on pay-option/negative amortization loans
Life of loan interest rate adjustment caps:
total interest rate adjustment limited to 5% or 6% for the life of the loan.
Caps on the periodic change in interest rate may be broken up into one limit on the first periodic change and a separate limit on subsequent periodic change, for example 5% on the initial adjustment and 2% on subsequent adjustments.
Although uncommon, a cap may limit the maximum monthly payment in absolute terms (for example, $1000 a month), rather than in relative terms.
ARMs that allow negative amortization will typically have payment adjustments that occur less frequently than the interest rate adjustment. For example, the interest rate may be adjusted every month, but the payment amount only once every 12 months.
Cap structure is sometimes expressed as initial adjustment cap / subsequent adjustment cap / life cap, for example 2/2/5 for a loan with a 2% cap on the initial adjustment, a 2% cap on subsequent adjustments, and a 5% cap on total interest rate adjustments. When only two values are given, this indicates that the initial change cap and periodic cap are the same. For example, a 2/2/5 cap structure may sometimes be written simply 2/5.
frequency of the interest rate change
periodic change in interest rate
total change in interest rate over the life of the loan, sometimes called life cap
For example, a given ARM might have the following types of caps:
Interest rate adjustment caps:
interest adjustments made every 6 months, typically 1% per adjustment, 2% total per year
interest adjustments made only once a year, typically 2% maximum
interest rate may adjust no more than 1% in a year
Mortgage payment adjustment caps:
maximum mortgage payment adjustments, usually 7.5% annually on pay-option/negative amortization loans
Life of loan interest rate adjustment caps:
total interest rate adjustment limited to 5% or 6% for the life of the loan.
Caps on the periodic change in interest rate may be broken up into one limit on the first periodic change and a separate limit on subsequent periodic change, for example 5% on the initial adjustment and 2% on subsequent adjustments.
Although uncommon, a cap may limit the maximum monthly payment in absolute terms (for example, $1000 a month), rather than in relative terms.
ARMs that allow negative amortization will typically have payment adjustments that occur less frequently than the interest rate adjustment. For example, the interest rate may be adjusted every month, but the payment amount only once every 12 months.
Cap structure is sometimes expressed as initial adjustment cap / subsequent adjustment cap / life cap, for example 2/2/5 for a loan with a 2% cap on the initial adjustment, a 2% cap on subsequent adjustments, and a 5% cap on total interest rate adjustments. When only two values are given, this indicates that the initial change cap and periodic cap are the same. For example, a 2/2/5 cap structure may sometimes be written simply 2/5.
Basic features of ARMs
The most important basic features of ARMs are:[2]
Initial interest rate. This is the beginning interest rate on an ARM.
The adjustment period. This is the length of time that the interest rate or loan period on an ARM is scheduled to remain unchanged. The rate is reset at the end of this period, and the monthly loan payment is recalculated.
The index rate. Most lenders tie ARM interest rates changes to changes in an index rate. Lenders base ARM rates on a variety of indices, the most common being rates on one-, three-, or five-year Treasury securities. Another common index is the national or regional average cost of funds to savings and loan associations.
The margin. This is the percentage points that lenders add to the index rate to determine the ARM's interest rate.
Interest rate caps. These are the limits on how much the interest rate or the monthly payment can be changed at the end of each adjustment period or over the life of the loan.
Initial discounts. These are interest rate concessions, often used as promotional aids, offered the first year or more of a loan. They reduce the interest rate below the prevailing rate (the index plus the margin).
Negative amortization. This means the mortgage balance is increasing. This occurs whenever the monthly mortgage payments are not large enough to pay all the interest due on the mortgage. This may be caused by the payment cap contained in the ARM when are high enough that the principal plus interest payment is greater than the payment cap.
Conversion. The agreement with the lender may have a clause that allows the buyer to convert the ARM to a fixed-rate mortgage at designated times.
Prepayment. Some agreements may require the buyer to pay special fees or penalties if the ARM is paid off early. Prepayment terms are sometimes negotiable.
It should be obvious that the choice of a home mortgage loan is complicated and time consuming. As a help to the buyer, the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Home Loan Bank Board have prepared a mortgage checklist.
Initial interest rate. This is the beginning interest rate on an ARM.
The adjustment period. This is the length of time that the interest rate or loan period on an ARM is scheduled to remain unchanged. The rate is reset at the end of this period, and the monthly loan payment is recalculated.
The index rate. Most lenders tie ARM interest rates changes to changes in an index rate. Lenders base ARM rates on a variety of indices, the most common being rates on one-, three-, or five-year Treasury securities. Another common index is the national or regional average cost of funds to savings and loan associations.
The margin. This is the percentage points that lenders add to the index rate to determine the ARM's interest rate.
Interest rate caps. These are the limits on how much the interest rate or the monthly payment can be changed at the end of each adjustment period or over the life of the loan.
Initial discounts. These are interest rate concessions, often used as promotional aids, offered the first year or more of a loan. They reduce the interest rate below the prevailing rate (the index plus the margin).
Negative amortization. This means the mortgage balance is increasing. This occurs whenever the monthly mortgage payments are not large enough to pay all the interest due on the mortgage. This may be caused by the payment cap contained in the ARM when are high enough that the principal plus interest payment is greater than the payment cap.
Conversion. The agreement with the lender may have a clause that allows the buyer to convert the ARM to a fixed-rate mortgage at designated times.
Prepayment. Some agreements may require the buyer to pay special fees or penalties if the ARM is paid off early. Prepayment terms are sometimes negotiable.
It should be obvious that the choice of a home mortgage loan is complicated and time consuming. As a help to the buyer, the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Home Loan Bank Board have prepared a mortgage checklist.
Index
All adjustable rate mortgages have an adjusting interest rate tied to an index.[1]
In Western Europe, the index may be the ECB Refi rate (where the mortgage is called a tracker mortgage), TIBOR or Euro Interbank Offered Rate (EURIBOR).
Six common indices in the United States are:
11th District Cost of Funds Index (COFI)
London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR)
12-month Treasury Average Index (MTA)
Constant Maturity Treasury (CMT)
National Average Contract Mortgage Rate
Bank Bill Swap Rate (BBSW)
In some countries, banks may publish a prime lending rate which is used as the index. The index may be applied in one of three ways: directly, on a rate plus margin basis, or based on index movement.
A directly applied index means that the interest rate changes exactly with the index. In other words, the interest rate on the note exactly equals the index. Of the above indices, only the contract rate index is applied directly.[1]
To apply an index on a rate plus margin basis means that the interest rate will equal the underlying index plus a margin. The margin is specified in the note and remains fixed over the life of the loan.[1] For example, a mortgage interest rate may be specified in the note as being LIBOR plus 2%, 2% being the margin and LIBOR being the index.
The final way to apply an index is on a movement basis. In this scheme, the mortgage is originated at an agreed upon rate, then adjusted based on the movement of the index.[1] Unlike direct or index plus margin, the initial rate is not explicitly tied to any index; the adjustments are tied to an index.
In Western Europe, the index may be the ECB Refi rate (where the mortgage is called a tracker mortgage), TIBOR or Euro Interbank Offered Rate (EURIBOR).
Six common indices in the United States are:
11th District Cost of Funds Index (COFI)
London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR)
12-month Treasury Average Index (MTA)
Constant Maturity Treasury (CMT)
National Average Contract Mortgage Rate
Bank Bill Swap Rate (BBSW)
In some countries, banks may publish a prime lending rate which is used as the index. The index may be applied in one of three ways: directly, on a rate plus margin basis, or based on index movement.
A directly applied index means that the interest rate changes exactly with the index. In other words, the interest rate on the note exactly equals the index. Of the above indices, only the contract rate index is applied directly.[1]
To apply an index on a rate plus margin basis means that the interest rate will equal the underlying index plus a margin. The margin is specified in the note and remains fixed over the life of the loan.[1] For example, a mortgage interest rate may be specified in the note as being LIBOR plus 2%, 2% being the margin and LIBOR being the index.
The final way to apply an index is on a movement basis. In this scheme, the mortgage is originated at an agreed upon rate, then adjusted based on the movement of the index.[1] Unlike direct or index plus margin, the initial rate is not explicitly tied to any index; the adjustments are tied to an index.
Adjustable-rate mortgage
This article is about the US mortgage type. For an international perspective, see Variable-rate mortgage.
An adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) is a mortgage loan where the interest rate on the note is periodically adjusted based on a variety of indices.[1] Among the most common indices are the rates on 1-year constant-maturity Treasury (CMT) securities, the Cost of Funds Index (COFI), and the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). A few lenders use their own cost of funds as an index, rather than using other indices. This is done to ensure a steady margin for the lender, whose own cost of funding will usually be related to the index. Consequently, payments made by the borrower may change over time with the changing interest rate (alternatively, the term of the loan may change). This is not to be confused with the graduated payment mortgage, which offers changing payment amounts but a fixed interest rate. Other forms of mortgage loan include the interest only mortgage, the fixed rate mortgage, the negative amortization mortgage, and the balloon payment mortgage. Adjustable rates transfer part of the interest rate risk from the lender to the borrower. They can be used where unpredictable interest rates make fixed rate loans difficult to obtain. The borrower benefits if the interest rate falls and loses out if interest rates rise.
Adjustable rate mortgages are characterized by their index and limitations on charges (caps). In many countries, adjustable rate mortgages are the norm, and in such places, may simply be referred to as mortgages.
An adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) is a mortgage loan where the interest rate on the note is periodically adjusted based on a variety of indices.[1] Among the most common indices are the rates on 1-year constant-maturity Treasury (CMT) securities, the Cost of Funds Index (COFI), and the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). A few lenders use their own cost of funds as an index, rather than using other indices. This is done to ensure a steady margin for the lender, whose own cost of funding will usually be related to the index. Consequently, payments made by the borrower may change over time with the changing interest rate (alternatively, the term of the loan may change). This is not to be confused with the graduated payment mortgage, which offers changing payment amounts but a fixed interest rate. Other forms of mortgage loan include the interest only mortgage, the fixed rate mortgage, the negative amortization mortgage, and the balloon payment mortgage. Adjustable rates transfer part of the interest rate risk from the lender to the borrower. They can be used where unpredictable interest rates make fixed rate loans difficult to obtain. The borrower benefits if the interest rate falls and loses out if interest rates rise.
Adjustable rate mortgages are characterized by their index and limitations on charges (caps). In many countries, adjustable rate mortgages are the norm, and in such places, may simply be referred to as mortgages.
Overnight market
The overnight market is the component of the money market involving the shortest term loan. Lenders agree to lend borrowers funds only "overnight" i.e. the borrower must repay the borrowed funds plus interest at the start of business the next day.[1] Given the short period of the loan, the interest rate charged in the overnight market, known as the overnight rate is, generally speaking, the lowest rate at which banks lend money.
Most of the activity in the so-called overnight market in fact occurs in the morning immediately after the start of business for the day. The typical day at a cash management group for a deposit-taking financial institution begins with forecasting the institution's clients' liquidity needs over the course of that day. If this projection is that the institutions' clients will need more money over the course of the day than the institution has on hand, the institution will borrow money on the overnight market that day. On the other hand, if the analyst projects that the institution will have surplus money on hand beyond that needed by its clients that day, then it will lend money on the overnight market that day.[1]
The bulk of trading occurs in the morning and is based on these projections. If, however, over the course of the day, the actual amount of money required by the institution's clients departs from that projected in the morning, it may become necessary for the institution to borrow money on the overnight market to meet this unexpected demand from its clients; conversely, if the institution finds itself with more funds on hand than it anticipated late in the day, it will then lend those funds on the overnight market.[1]
The overnight rate fluctuates over the course of a business day, depending on the amount of money demanded from and supplied to the overnight market over the course of the day. The rate quoted as the "overnight rate" may be the rate at the end of the day, or an average of the rate over the course of the day.
Banks are the largest participant in the overnight market, although some other large financial institutions, e.g. mutual funds, also buy and sell on the overnight market as a way to manage unanticipated cash needs or as a temporary haven for money until the institution can decide on where to invest that money.[1]
Most of the activity in the so-called overnight market in fact occurs in the morning immediately after the start of business for the day. The typical day at a cash management group for a deposit-taking financial institution begins with forecasting the institution's clients' liquidity needs over the course of that day. If this projection is that the institutions' clients will need more money over the course of the day than the institution has on hand, the institution will borrow money on the overnight market that day. On the other hand, if the analyst projects that the institution will have surplus money on hand beyond that needed by its clients that day, then it will lend money on the overnight market that day.[1]
The bulk of trading occurs in the morning and is based on these projections. If, however, over the course of the day, the actual amount of money required by the institution's clients departs from that projected in the morning, it may become necessary for the institution to borrow money on the overnight market to meet this unexpected demand from its clients; conversely, if the institution finds itself with more funds on hand than it anticipated late in the day, it will then lend those funds on the overnight market.[1]
The overnight rate fluctuates over the course of a business day, depending on the amount of money demanded from and supplied to the overnight market over the course of the day. The rate quoted as the "overnight rate" may be the rate at the end of the day, or an average of the rate over the course of the day.
Banks are the largest participant in the overnight market, although some other large financial institutions, e.g. mutual funds, also buy and sell on the overnight market as a way to manage unanticipated cash needs or as a temporary haven for money until the institution can decide on where to invest that money.[1]
Common money market instruments
Certificate of deposit - Time deposits, commonly offered to consumers by banks, thrift institutions, and credit unions.
Repurchase agreements - Short-term loans—normally for less than two weeks and frequently for one day—arranged by selling securities to an investor with an agreement to repurchase them at a fixed price on a fixed date.
Commercial paper - Unsecured promissory notes with a fixed maturity of one to 270 days; usually sold at a discount from face value.
Eurodollar deposit - Deposits made in U.S. dollars at a bank or bank branch located outside the United States.
Federal agency short-term securities - (in the U.S.). Short-term securities issued by government sponsored enterprises such as the Farm Credit System, the Federal Home Loan Banks and the Federal National Mortgage Association.
Federal funds - (in the U.S.). Interest-bearing deposits held by banks and other depository institutions at the Federal Reserve; these are immediately available funds that institutions borrow or lend, usually on an overnight basis. They are lent for the federal funds rate.
Municipal notes - (in the U.S.). Short-term notes issued by municipalities in anticipation of tax receipts or other revenues.
Treasury bills - Short-term debt obligations of a national government that are issued to mature in three to twelve months. For the U.S., see Treasury bills.
Money funds - Pooled short maturity, high quality investments which buy money market securities on behalf of retail or institutional investors.
Foreign Exchange Swaps - Exchanging a set of currencies in spot date and the reversal of the exchange of currencies at a predetermined time in the future.
Short-lived mortgage-backed and asset-backed securities
Repurchase agreements - Short-term loans—normally for less than two weeks and frequently for one day—arranged by selling securities to an investor with an agreement to repurchase them at a fixed price on a fixed date.
Commercial paper - Unsecured promissory notes with a fixed maturity of one to 270 days; usually sold at a discount from face value.
Eurodollar deposit - Deposits made in U.S. dollars at a bank or bank branch located outside the United States.
Federal agency short-term securities - (in the U.S.). Short-term securities issued by government sponsored enterprises such as the Farm Credit System, the Federal Home Loan Banks and the Federal National Mortgage Association.
Federal funds - (in the U.S.). Interest-bearing deposits held by banks and other depository institutions at the Federal Reserve; these are immediately available funds that institutions borrow or lend, usually on an overnight basis. They are lent for the federal funds rate.
Municipal notes - (in the U.S.). Short-term notes issued by municipalities in anticipation of tax receipts or other revenues.
Treasury bills - Short-term debt obligations of a national government that are issued to mature in three to twelve months. For the U.S., see Treasury bills.
Money funds - Pooled short maturity, high quality investments which buy money market securities on behalf of retail or institutional investors.
Foreign Exchange Swaps - Exchanging a set of currencies in spot date and the reversal of the exchange of currencies at a predetermined time in the future.
Short-lived mortgage-backed and asset-backed securities
Overview
The money market consists of financial institutions and dealers in money or credit who wish to either borrow or lend. Participants borrow and lend for short periods of time, typically up to thirteen months. Money market trades in short-term financial instruments commonly called "paper." This contrasts with the capital market for longer-term funding, which is supplied by bonds and equity.
The core of the money market consists of banks borrowing and lending to each other, using commercial paper, repurchase agreements and similar instruments. These instruments are often benchmarked to (i.e. priced by reference to) the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) for the appropriate term and currency.
Finance companies, such as GMAC, typically fund themselves by issuing large amounts of asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP) which is secured by the pledge of eligible assets into an ABCP conduit. Examples of eligible assets include auto loans, credit card receivables, residential/commercial mortgage loans, mortgage-backed securities and similar financial assets. Certain large corporations with strong credit ratings, such as General Electric, issue commercial paper on their own credit. Other large corporations arrange for banks to issue commercial paper on their behalf via commercial paper lines.
In the United States, federal, state and local governments all issue paper to meet funding needs. States and local governments issue municipal paper, while the US Treasury issues Treasury bills to fund the US public debt.
Trading companies often purchase bankers' acceptances to be tendered for payment to overseas suppliers.
Retail and institutional money market funds
Banks
Central banks
Cash management programs
Arbitrage ABCP conduits, which seek to buy higher yielding paper, while themselves selling cheaper paper.
Merchant Banks
The core of the money market consists of banks borrowing and lending to each other, using commercial paper, repurchase agreements and similar instruments. These instruments are often benchmarked to (i.e. priced by reference to) the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) for the appropriate term and currency.
Finance companies, such as GMAC, typically fund themselves by issuing large amounts of asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP) which is secured by the pledge of eligible assets into an ABCP conduit. Examples of eligible assets include auto loans, credit card receivables, residential/commercial mortgage loans, mortgage-backed securities and similar financial assets. Certain large corporations with strong credit ratings, such as General Electric, issue commercial paper on their own credit. Other large corporations arrange for banks to issue commercial paper on their behalf via commercial paper lines.
In the United States, federal, state and local governments all issue paper to meet funding needs. States and local governments issue municipal paper, while the US Treasury issues Treasury bills to fund the US public debt.
Trading companies often purchase bankers' acceptances to be tendered for payment to overseas suppliers.
Retail and institutional money market funds
Banks
Central banks
Cash management programs
Arbitrage ABCP conduits, which seek to buy higher yielding paper, while themselves selling cheaper paper.
Merchant Banks
Money market
The money market is a component of the financial markets for assets involved in short-term borrowing and lending with original maturities of one year or shorter time frames. Trading in the money markets involves Treasury bills, commercial paper, bankers' acceptances, certificates of deposit, federal funds, and short-lived mortgage-backed and asset-backed securities.[1] It provides liquidity funding for the global financial system.
Foreign exchange market
The foreign exchange market (forex, FX, or currency market) is a worldwide decentralized over-the-counter financial market for the trading of currencies. Financial centers around the world function as anchors of trading between a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers around the clock, with the exception of weekends.
The purpose of the foreign exchange market 'Forex' is to assist international trade and investment. The foreign exchange market allows businesses to convert one currency to another foreign currency. For example, it permits a U.S. business to import European goods and pay Euros, even though the business's income is in U.S. dollars. Some experts, however, believe that the unchecked speculative movement of currencies by large financial institutions such as hedge funds impedes the markets from correcting global current account imbalances. This carry trade may also lead to loss of competitiveness in some countries.[1]
In a typical foreign exchange transaction a party purchases a quantity of one currency by paying a quantity of another currency. The modern foreign exchange market started forming during the 1970s when countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed as per the Bretton Woods system.
The foreign exchange market is unique because of
trading volume results in market liquidity
geographical dispersion
continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e. trading from 20:15 UTC on Sunday until 22:00 UTC Friday
the variety of factors that affect exchange rates
the low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income
the use of leverage to enhance profit margins with respect to account size
As such, it has been referred to as the market closest to the ideal perfect competition, notwithstanding market manipulation by central banks.[citation needed] According to the Bank for International Settlements,[2] average daily turnover in global foreign exchange markets is estimated at $3.98 trillion as of April 2007. Trading in the world's main financial markets accounted for $3.21 trillion of this. This approximately $3.21 trillion in main foreign exchange market turnover was broken down as follows:
$1.005 trillion in spot transactions
$362 billion in outright forwards
$1.714 trillion in foreign exchange swaps
$129 billion estimated gaps in reporting
The purpose of the foreign exchange market 'Forex' is to assist international trade and investment. The foreign exchange market allows businesses to convert one currency to another foreign currency. For example, it permits a U.S. business to import European goods and pay Euros, even though the business's income is in U.S. dollars. Some experts, however, believe that the unchecked speculative movement of currencies by large financial institutions such as hedge funds impedes the markets from correcting global current account imbalances. This carry trade may also lead to loss of competitiveness in some countries.[1]
In a typical foreign exchange transaction a party purchases a quantity of one currency by paying a quantity of another currency. The modern foreign exchange market started forming during the 1970s when countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed as per the Bretton Woods system.
The foreign exchange market is unique because of
trading volume results in market liquidity
geographical dispersion
continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e. trading from 20:15 UTC on Sunday until 22:00 UTC Friday
the variety of factors that affect exchange rates
the low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income
the use of leverage to enhance profit margins with respect to account size
As such, it has been referred to as the market closest to the ideal perfect competition, notwithstanding market manipulation by central banks.[citation needed] According to the Bank for International Settlements,[2] average daily turnover in global foreign exchange markets is estimated at $3.98 trillion as of April 2007. Trading in the world's main financial markets accounted for $3.21 trillion of this. This approximately $3.21 trillion in main foreign exchange market turnover was broken down as follows:
$1.005 trillion in spot transactions
$362 billion in outright forwards
$1.714 trillion in foreign exchange swaps
$129 billion estimated gaps in reporting
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